Basil (Ocimum basilicum) (pronounced /ˈbæzəl/ or /ˈbeɪzəl/), of the family What does and does not belong to each family is determined by a taxonomist. Similarly for the question if a particular family should be recognized at all. Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no hard rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing a family Lamiaceae Lamiaceae or Labiatae, also known as the mint family, is a family of plants. It has been considered closely related to Verbenaceae,[citation needed] but several recent phylogenetic studies have shown that numerous genera classified in Verbenaceae belong instead in Lamiaceae, whereas the core genera of Verbenaceae are not closely related to (mints), is a tender low-growing herb In American English the initial "h" is normally silent: /ˈɜrb/.[Full citation needed] In standard British English the "h" is pronounced: /ˈhɜːb/ Also see American and British English pronunciation differences. In Canada, it is pronounced either with or without the "h". Basil is a culinary herb prominently featured in Italian cuisine Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots as far back as the 4th century BC. Italian cuisine in itself takes heavy influences from Etruscan, ancient Greek, ancient Roman, Byzantine, Germanic, Gaelic, Norman, Jewish and Arab cuisines. Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World, and also plays a major role in the Southeast Asian Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic and volcanic activity cuisines of Taiwan Cuisines in Taiwan have several variations. In addition to the following representative dishes from the people of Hoklo (Hō-ló) ethnicity (see Taiwanese people), there are also Aboriginal, Hakka, and local derivatives of Chinese cuisines (one famous example of the last is beef noodle soup), Thailand Thai cuisine is the national cuisine of Thailand. Thai cuisine places emphasis on lightly-prepared dishes with strong aromatic components. Thai cuisine is known for being spicy. Balance, detail and variety are important to Thai cooking. Thai food is known for its balance of five fundamental flavors in each dish or the overall meal: hot , sour,, Vietnam Vietnamese cuisine is a style of cooking derived from the nation of Vietnam with fish sauce, soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables all commonly used. Vietnamese recipes utilize a very diverse range of herbs, including lemongrass, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander and Thai basil leaves. Traditional Vietnamese cooking is greatly, Cambodia Khmer cuisine is another name for the food widely consumed in Cambodia. The food of Cambodia includes tropical fruits, rice, noodles, drinks, dessert and various soups, and Laos Lao cuisine is the cuisine of the Lao ethnic group of Laos and Northeast Thailand . Lao food is distinct from other Southeast Asian cuisines. The staple food of the Lao is sticky rice eaten by hand. Galangal, lemongrass and padaek (Lao fish sauce) are important ingredients. The most famous Lao dish is laap (Lao: ລາບ; sometimes also spelled. The plant tastes somewhat like anise Anise (Pimpinella anisum, also anís and aniseed) is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to the eastern Mediterranean region and Southwest Asia. It is known for its flavor, which resembles liquorice, fennel and tarragon, with a strong, pungent, sweet smell.

There are many varieties of basil. That which is used in Italian food is typically called sweet basil, as opposed to Thai basil Thai basil is a cultivar group of basil. It has a more assertive taste than many other sweet basils. The herb has small leaves, purple stems and a subtle licorice or mint flavor. One cultivar used in the United States is 'Queen of Siam', lemon basil Lemon basil is a hybrid between basil (Ocimum basilicum) and African basil (Ocimum americanum)) and holy basil Ocimum tenuiflorum is an aromatic plant in the family Lamiaceae. It is an erect, much branched subshrub 30-60 cm tall with hairy stems and simple opposite green leaves that are strongly scented. Leaves have petioles, and are ovate, up to 5 cm long, usually slightly toothed. Flowers are purplish in elongate racemes in close whorls. There are two, which are used in Asia. While most common varieties of basil are treated as annuals An annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers, and dies in a year or season. True annuals will only live longer than a year if they are prevented from setting seed. Some seedless plants can also be considered annuals even though they do not grow a flower, some are perennial A perennial plant or perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. When used by gardeners or horticulturalists, applies specifically to winter hardy perennial herbaceous plants. Scientifically, woody plants like shrubs and trees are also perennial in their habit in warm, tropical climates, including African Blue and Holy Thai basil.

Basil is originally native to Iran Iran (Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and formerly known as Persia, is a country in Central Eurasia and Western Asia. The name Iran has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was widely known as Persia. Both Persia and Iran are, India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the and other tropical regions of Asia Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 4 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population. During the 20th century Asia's population nearly quadrupled, having been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years^{[citation needed]}.

Etymology

The word basil comes from the Greek Greek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of βασιλεύς (basileus Basileus (Greek Βασιλεύς ( Byzantine and Modern Greek pronunciation , plural Βασιλεῖς, basileis) is a Greek term and title that has signified various types of monarchs in history. It is perhaps best known in English as a title used by Byzantine emperors, but also has a longer history of use for persons of authority and sovereigns), meaning "king", as it is believed to have grown above the spot where St. Constantine Caesar Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus , commonly known in English as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or (among Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Christians) Saint Constantine (pronounced /ˈkɒnstəntaɪn/ or /ˈkɒnstəntiːn/), was Roman emperor from 306, and the sole holder of that office from 324 and Helen Saint Helena also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople (ca. 246/50 – 18 August 330) was the consort of Emperor Constantius, and the mother of Emperor Constantine I. She is traditionally credited with finding the relics of the True Cross discovered the Holy Cross The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which, by a Christian tradition, are believed to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. The Oxford English Dictionary The Oxford English Dictionary , published by the Oxford University Press, is a dictionary of the English language. Two fully-bound print editions of the OED have been published under its current name, in 1928 and 1989. As of December 2008[update], the editors had completed one quarter of a third edition quotes speculations that basil may have been used in "some royal unguent, bath, or medicine". Basil is still considered the "king of herbs" by many cookery authors.^[who?]

Nomenclature and taxonomy

A number of different varieties of Ocimum basilicum with their common names are listed here (the Herb Cottage basil page)^{[citation needed]}.

Culinary use

Basil is commonly used fresh in cooked recipes. It is generally added at the last moment, as cooking quickly destroys the flavour. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavour, and what little flavour remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin Coumarin is a chemical compound found in many plants, notably in high concentration in the tonka bean (Dipteryx odorata), vanilla grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), woodruff (Galium odoratum), mullein (Verbascum spp.), and sweet grass (Hierochloe odorata). It has a sweet scent, readily recognised as the scent of newly-mown hay, and has been used in flavour, like hay Hay is grass, legumes or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored for use as animal fodder, particularly for grazing livestock such as cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. Hay is also fed to pets such as rabbits and guinea pigs. Pigs may be fed hay, but they do not digest it as efficiently as more fully herbivorous animals.

Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto Pesto is a sauce originating in Genoa in the Liguria region of northern Italy (pesto alla genovese). The name is the contracted past participle of pestâ ("to pound, to crush", from the same Latin root as the English word pestle), in reference to the sauce's crushed herbs and garlic—a green Italian oil-and-herb sauce. Its other two main ingredients are olive oil and pine nuts.

The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars A cultivar is a cultivated variety of a plant that has been deliberately selected for specific desirable characteristics . When propagated correctly, the plants of a particular cultivar retain their special characteristics are "Genovese", "Purple Ruffles", "Mammoth", "Cinnamon", "Lemon", "Globe", and "African Blue". The Chinese Chinese Cuisine is a term for styles of food originating in the regions of China, many of which have become extremely popular in other parts of the world — from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa. Where there are historical immigrant Chinese populations, the style of food has evolved – for example, American also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan Taiwan, also known as Formosa , is an island situated in East Asia in the Western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China, and comprises most of the territory of the Republic of China (ROC) since the 1950s. The term "Taiwan" has also become a commonly used alternative name both domestically and, people add fresh basil leaves to thick soups (traditional Chinese Traditional Chinese characters refers to Chinese characters in any of the standard sets of Chinese characters which are not the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo or Tōyō kanji. It most commonly refers to characters in the standardized character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong, or in the Kangxi Dictionary. The modern shapes of traditional: 羹湯; pinyin Pinyin , or more formally Hanyu Pinyin (汉语拼音 / 漢語拼音), is currently the most commonly used romanization system for Standard Mandarin (标准普通话 / 標準普通話). Hànyǔ (汉语 / 漢語) means the Chinese language, and pīnyīn (拼音) means "phonetics", or more literally, "spelling sound" or ": gēngtāng). They also eat fried chicken Fried chicken is chicken pieces usually from broiler chickens which have been floured or battered and then pan fried, deep fried, or pressure fried. The breading adds a crispy coating or crust to the exterior. What separates fried chicken from other fried forms of chicken is that generally the chicken is cut at the joints and the bones and skin with deep-fried basil leaves. Basil (most commonly Thai Basil) is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create an interesting flavor in ice cream or chocolates (such as truffles).

Basil is sometimes used with fresh fruit and in fruit jams and sauces—in particular with strawberries, but also raspberries or dark-colored plums. Arguably the flat-leaf basil used in Vietnamese cooking, which has a slightly different flavour, is more suitable for use with fruit.

Basil seeds

When soaked in water the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as falooda Falooda or Faluda is a popular beverage in South Asia made primarily by mixing rose syrup with vermicelli and tapioca seeds along with either milk or water. Falooda is an adaptation of the Persian dessert Faloodeh and was brought to the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal period. Basil seeds (sabja/takmaria), tutti frutti, sugar, and ice cream or Sherbet. Such seeds are known variously as sabza, subza, takmaria, tukmaria, tukhamaria, falooda, selasih (Malay/Indonesian) or hột é (Vietnamese). They are used for their medicinal properties in Ayurveda Ayurveda Ayurvedic medicine is a system of traditional medicine native to the Indian subcontinent and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine. In Sanskrit, the word ayurveda consists of the words āyus, meaning "longevity", and veda, meaning "related to knowledge" or "science". Evolving, the traditional medicinal system of India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the and Siddha medicine The Siddha medicine is a form of south Indian Tamil traditional medicine and part of the trio Indian medicines - ayurveda, siddha and unani.This is nearly 10,000 years old medical system followed by the Tamil People.This system of medicine was popular in ancient India,due to the antiquity of this medical system,the siddha system of medicine is, a traditional Tamil system of medicine. They are also used as popular drinks in Southeast Asia.

Other basils

See List of basil cultivars

Several other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in many regions of Asia Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 4 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population. During the 20th century Asia's population nearly quadrupled. Most of the Asian basils have a clove-like flavour that is generally stronger than the Mediterranean basils. The most notable is the holy basil or tulsi Ocimum tenuiflorum is an aromatic plant in the family Lamiaceae. It is an erect, much branched subshrub 30-60 cm tall with hairy stems and simple opposite green leaves that are strongly scented. Leaves have petioles, and are ovate, up to 5 cm long, usually slightly toothed. Flowers are purplish in elongate racemes in close whorls. There are two, a revered home-grown plant in India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the and Nepal Nepal (pronounced /nəˈpal/ nə-PAHL, /-pal/ -PAWL; Nepali: नेपाल [neˈpal] ), officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a himalayan country in South Asia and, as of 2010, the world's most recent nation to become a republic. It is bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by. In China China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity, the local cultivar is called (traditional Chinese Traditional Chinese characters refers to Chinese characters in any of the standard sets of Chinese characters which are not the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo or Tōyō kanji. It most commonly refers to characters in the standardized character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong, or in the Kangxi Dictionary. The modern shapes of traditional: 九層塔; pinyin Pinyin , or more formally Hanyu Pinyin (汉语拼音 / 漢語拼音), is currently the most commonly used romanization system for Standard Mandarin (标准普通话 / 標準普通話). Hànyǔ (汉语 / 漢語) means the Chinese language, and pīnyīn (拼音) means "phonetics", or more literally, "spelling sound" or ": jiǔ-céng-tǎ; literally "nine-level pagoda A pagoda is the general term in the English language for a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Nepal and other parts of Asia. Some pagodas are used as Taoist houses of worship. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most commonly Buddhist, and were often located in or near temples. This term may"), while the imported varieties are called (traditional Chinese Traditional Chinese characters refers to Chinese characters in any of the standard sets of Chinese characters which are not the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo or Tōyō kanji. It most commonly refers to characters in the standardized character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong, or in the Kangxi Dictionary. The modern shapes of traditional: 羅勒; pinyin Pinyin , or more formally Hanyu Pinyin (汉语拼音 / 漢語拼音), is currently the most commonly used romanization system for Standard Mandarin (标准普通话 / 標準普通話). Hànyǔ (汉语 / 漢語) means the Chinese language, and pīnyīn (拼音) means "phonetics", or more literally, "spelling sound" or ": luó-lè) or (traditional Chinese Traditional Chinese characters refers to Chinese characters in any of the standard sets of Chinese characters which are not the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo or Tōyō kanji. It most commonly refers to characters in the standardized character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong, or in the Kangxi Dictionary. The modern shapes of traditional: 巴西里; pinyin Pinyin , or more formally Hanyu Pinyin (汉语拼音 / 漢語拼音), is currently the most commonly used romanization system for Standard Mandarin (标准普通话 / 標準普通話). Hànyǔ (汉语 / 漢語) means the Chinese language, and pīnyīn (拼音) means "phonetics", or more literally, "spelling sound" or ": bā-xī-lǐ), although [巴西里] often refers to a different plant—parsley.

Lemon basil has a strong lemony smell and flavour very different from those of other varieties because it contains a chemical called citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called kemangi and served raw, together with raw cabbage, green beans, and cucumber, as an accompaniment to fried fish or duck. Its flowers, when broken up, are a zesty salad condiment.

Chemical components

The various basils have such different scents because the herb has a number of different essential oils which come together in different proportions for various breeds. The strong clove scent of sweet basil is derived from eugenol, the same chemical as actual cloves^{[citation needed]}. The citrus scent of lemon basil and lime basil is because they have a higher portion of citral which causes this effect in several plants, including lemon mint, and limonene, which gives actual lemon peel its scent. African blue basil has a strong camphor smell because it has camphor and camphene in higher proportions. Licorice Basil contains anethole, the same chemical that makes anise smell like licorice, and in fact is sometimes called Anise Basil.

Other chemicals helping produce the distinctive scents of many basils, depending on their proportion in each specific breed, including^{[citation needed]}:

• citronellol (scented geraniums, roses, and citronella)^{[citation needed]}
• linalool^[1] (a flowery scent also in coriander)
• myrcene (bay leaf, myrcia)^{[citation needed]}
• pinene (which is, as the name implies, the chemical which gives pine oil its scent)
• ocimene
• terpineol
• linalyl acetate
• fenchyl acetate
• trans-ocimene
• 1,8-cineole
• camphor octanane
• methyl eugenol
• eugenol
• beta-caryophyllene

There are four main types of basil, including *exotic, French, **methyl cinnamate and eugenol basil.

French Basil; Ocimum basilicum, contains lower amounts of phenols and is therefore less toxic than exotic basil.

• contains Methyl chavicol (40-80%) **contains methyl cinnamate - ether 90%

Basil and oregano contain large amounts of (E)-beta-caryophyllene (BCP), which might have a use in treating inflammatory bowel diseases and arthritis. BCP is the only product identified in nature that activates CB2 selectively; it interacts with one of two cannabinoid receptors (CB2), blocking chemical signals that lead to inflammation, without triggering cannabis's mood-altering effects.^[2]

Cultivation

Basil grows to between 30–130 cm tall, with opposite, light green, silky leaves 3–11 cm long and 1–6 cm broad. The flowers are small, white in color and arranged in a terminal spike. Unusual among Lamiaceae, the four stamens and the pistil are not pushed under the upper lip of the corolla, but lay over the inferior. After entomophilous pollination, the corolla falls off and four round achenes develop inside the bilabiate calyx.

Basil is very sensitive to cold, with best growth in hot, dry conditions. It behaves as an annual if there is any chance of a frost. In Northern Europe, Canada, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand it will grow best if sown under glass in a peat pot, then planted out in late spring/early summer (when there is little chance of a frost). It fares best in a well-drained sunny spot.

Although basil will grow best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot and, like most herbs, will do best on an equator-facing windowsill. It should be kept away from extremely cold drafts, and grows best in strong sunlight, therefore a greenhouse or Row cover is ideal if available. They can, however, be grown even in a basement, under fluorescent lights.

If its leaves have wilted from lack of water, it will recover if watered thoroughly and placed in a sunny location. Yellow leaves towards the bottom of the plant are an indication that the plant needs more sunlight or less fertilizer.

In sunnier climates such as Southern Europe, the southern states of the U.S., the North Island of New Zealand, and Australia, basil will thrive when planted outside. It also thrives over the summertime in the central and northern United States, but dies out when temperatures reach freezing point. It will grow back the next year if allowed to go to seed. It will need regular watering, but not as much attention as is needed in other climates.

Basil can also be propagated very reliably from cuttings in exactly the same manner as Busy Lizzie (Impatiens), with the stems of short cuttings suspended for two weeks or so in water until roots develop.

If a stem successfully produces mature flowers, leaf production slows or stops on any stem which flowers, the stem becomes woody, and essential oil production declines.To prevent this, a basil-grower may pinch off any flower stems before they are fully mature. Because only the blooming stem is so affected, some can be pinched for leaf production, while others are left to bloom for decoration or seeds.

Once the plant is allowed to flower, it may produce seed pods containing small black seeds which can be saved and planted the following year. Picking the leaves off the plant helps "promote growth", largely because the plant responds by converting pairs of leaflets next to the topmost leaves into new stems.

Diseases

Basil suffers from several plant pathogens that can ruin the crop and reduce yield. Fusarium wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants. Seedlings may also be killed by Pythium damping off.

A common foliar disease of basil is gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea, can also cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. Black spot can also be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the fungi genus Colletotrichum.

Health effects

Recently, there has been much research into the health benefits conferred by the essential oils found in basil. Scientific studies have established that compounds in basil oil have potent antioxidant, anti-cancer, antiviral, and anti-microbial properties.^[3][4][5][6] In addition, basil has been shown to decrease the occurrence of platelet aggregation and experimental thrombus in mice.^[7] It is traditionally used for supplementary treatment of stress, asthma and diabetes in India.^[8] In Siddha medicine, it is used for treating pimples on the face, but noted that intake of the seeds in large quantities is harmful for the brain^{[citation needed]}.

Basil, like other aromatic plants such as fennel and tarragon, contains estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in rats and mice. While human effects are currently unstudied, the rodent experiments indicate that it would take 100–1000 times the normal anticipated exposure to become a cancer risk.^[9]

Cultural aspects

There are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The French sometimes call basil "l'herbe royale", while in Welsh it has the synonymous name "brenhinllys"^{[citation needed]}. Jewish folklore suggests it adds strength while fasting. It is a symbol of love in present-day Italy, whilst in Portugal, Dwarf Bush Basil is traditionally presented in a pot, together with a poem and a pom-pom, to a sweetheart, on the religious holidays of Saint John and Saint Anthony. However, basil represented hatred in ancient Greece, and European lore sometimes claims that basil is a symbol of Satan. African legend claims that basil protects against scorpions, while the English botanist Culpeper cites one "Hilarius, a French physician" as affirming it as common knowledge that smelling basil too much would breed scorpions in the brain.

Holy Basil, also called 'Tulsi' , is highly revered in Hinduism and also has religious significance in the Greek Orthodox Church, where it is used to prepare holy water. It is said to have been found around Christ's tomb after his resurrection. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and Romanian Orthodox Church use basil (Bulgarian and Macedonian: босилек; Romanian: busuioc, Serbian: босиљак) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars.

In Europe, basil is placed in the hands of the dead to ensure a safe journey. In India, they place it in the mouth of the dying to ensure they reach God. The ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks believed that it would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on.^{[citation needed]}

In Boccaccio's Decameron a memorably morbid tale (novella V) tells of Lisabetta, whose brothers slay her lover. He appears to her in a dream and shows her where he is buried. She secretly disinters the head, and sets it in a pot of basil, which she waters with her daily tears. The pot being taken from her by her brothers, she dies of her grief not long after. Boccaccio's tale is the source of John Keats' poem Isabella or The Pot of Basil - which in turn inspired the paintings Isabella (Millais painting) and Isabella and the Pot of Basil. A similar story is told of the Longobard queen Rosalind.

Toxicity studies

A toxicity study of Ocimum basilicum against fungi has been conducted by Dube et al. ^[10], which demonstrated that the plant is of insecticidal potent. Similar researches confirmed recently that the plant is very toxic to mosquitos ^[11]. However, the plant is safe to rats ^{[12][clarification needed]}.

Gallery

See also

• List of basil cultivars

References

• Diseases of Basil and Their Management
• http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/pdfs/pr090909sabs132.pdf

Footnotes

1. ^ J. Janick (ed.), James E. Simon, Mario R. Morales, Winthrop B. Phippen, Roberto Fontes Vieira, and Zhigang Hao, "Basil: A Source of Aroma Compounds and a Popular Culinary and Ornamental Herb", reprinted from: Perspectives on new crops and new uses (1999), ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA, ISBN 978-0-9615027-0-6.
2. ^ Anti-inflammatory compound from cannabis found in herbs
3. ^ Bozin B, Mimica-Dukic N, Simin N, Anackov G (March 2006). "Characterization of the volatile composition of essential oils of some lamiaceae spices and the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the entire oils". J. Agric. Food Chem. 54 (5): 1822–8. doi:10.1021/jf051922u. PMID 16506839.
4. ^ Chiang LC, Ng LT, Cheng PW, Chiang W, Lin CC (October 2005). "Antiviral activities of extracts and selected pure constituents of Ocimum basilicum". Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 32 (10): 811–6. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1681.2005.04270.x. PMID 16173941.
5. ^ de Almeida I, Alviano DS, Vieira DP, et al. (July 2007). "Antigiardial activity of Ocimum basilicum essential oil". Parasitol. Res. 101 (2): 443–52. doi:10.1007/s00436-007-0502-2. PMID 17342533.
6. ^ Manosroi J, Dhumtanom P, Manosroi A (April 2006). "Anti-proliferative activity of essential oil extracted from Thai medicinal plants on KB and P388 cell lines". Cancer Lett. 235 (1): 114–20. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2005.04.021. PMID 15979235.
7. ^ Tohti I, Tursun M, Umar A, Turdi S, Imin H, Moore N (2006). "Aqueous extracts of Ocimum basilicum L. (sweet basil) decrease platelet aggregation induced by ADP and thrombin in vitro and rats arterio--venous shunt thrombosis in vivo". Thromb. Res. 118 (6): 733–9. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2005.12.011. PMID 16469363.
8. ^ Duke, James A.. "Basil as the Holy Hindu Highness". doi:10.1089/act.2008.14101. http://www.liebertonline.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1089/act.2008.14101. Retrieved 10 May 2008.
9. ^ EMEA (2004-03-03). "Position Paper on the use of HMP containing estragole" (PDF). pp. 5. http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/hmpwp/033803en.pdf. Retrieved 2006-11-17. "In particular, rodent studies show that these events are minimal probably in the dose range of 1-10 mg/kg body weight, which is approximately 100-1000 times the anticipated human exposure to this substance"
10. ^ Dube, S. et al. (1989). . . Retrieved 30 May 2009.
11. ^ Maurya, Prejwltta et al.; Sharma, Preeti; Mohan, Lalit; Batabyal, Lata; Srivastava, C.N. (2009). "Evaluation of the toxicity of different phytoextracts of Ocimum basilicum against Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 12 (2): 113–115. doi:10.1016/j.aspen.2009.02.004.
12. ^ Fandohan, P. et al.; Gnonlonfin, B; Laleye, A; Gbenou, JD; Darboux, R; Moudachirou, M (2008). "Toxicity and gastric tolerance of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum gratissimum and Ocimum basilicum in Wistar rats". Food and Chemical Toxicology 46 (7): 2493–2497. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2008.04.006. PMID 18511170.

External links

• How to Grow Basil Information about planting, propagating and growing Basil.
• Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages explain the culinary use of basil in European and Asian cooking; further web links.

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