Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms such as finfish, mollusks, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Also known as aquafarming, aquaculture involves cultivating aquatic populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish. Commercial aquaculture supplies involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food Food is any substance or material eaten to provide nutritional support for the body or for pleasure. It usually consists of plant or animal origin, that contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals, and is ingested and assimilated by an organism to produce energy, stimulate growth, and maintain life and other products in the open ocean An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (~3.61 X 1014 m2) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy or raceways which are filled with seawater Seawater is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5%. This means that every kilogram, or every litre, of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts (mostly, but not entirely, the ions of sodium chloride: Na+, Cl−). The average density of seawater at the ocean surface is 1.025. An example of the latter is the farming of marine fish A fish is any aquatic vertebrate animal that is covered with scales, and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are "cold-blooded", or ectothermic, allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic, including finfish A fish is any aquatic vertebrate animal that is covered with scales, and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are ectothermic . Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. Fish can be found in high mountain streams (e.g., char and gudgeon) and in the deepest ocean depths (e.g., gulpers and anglerfish) and shellfish Shellfish is a culinary and fisheries term for exoskeleton-bearing aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Although most kinds of shellfish are harvested from saltwater environments, some kinds are found only in freshwater. In addition a few species of land crabs are eaten, for e.g.prawns Prawns are decapod crustaceans, belonging to the sub-order Dendrobranchiata. The term "prawn" is also used in various contexts for other animals, especially caridean shrimp. They are found worldwide and include commercially significant species, such as the whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, Atlantic white shrimp Penaeus setiferus,, or oysters The word oyster is used as a common name for a number of distinct groups of bivalve molluscs which live in marine or brackish habitats. The valves are highly calcified and seaweed Seaweed is a loose, colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthic marine algae. The term includes some members of the red, brown and green algae. Seaweeds can also be classified by use in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal Fish meal, or fishmeal, is a commercial product made from both whole fish and the bones and offal from processed fish. It is a brown powder or cake obtained by rendering pressing the cooked whole fish or fish trimmings to remove most of the fish oil and water, and then ground. What remains is the "fishmeal", nutrient agar Agar or agar agar is a gelatinous substance derived from red algae. Historically and in a modern context, it is chiefly used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia and also in the past century has found extensive use as a solid substrate to contain culture medium for microbiological work. The gelling agent is an unbranched polysaccharide, jewellery Jewellery or jewelry (see American and British English spelling differences) signifies items of personal adornment, such as necklaces, rings, brooches, earrings and bracelets. Jewellery may be made from any material, such as gemstones, precious metals or shells, besides other materials, depending on cultural differences and availability of (e.g. cultured pearls A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue of a living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is made up of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes of pearls (baroque pearls) occur. The finest), and cosmetics Cosmetics are substances used to enhance the appearance or odor of the human body. Cosmetics include skin-care creams, lotions, powders, perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail and toe nail polish, eye and facial makeup, permanent waves, colored contact lenses, hair colors, hair sprays and gels, deodorants, baby products, bath oils, bubble baths, bath.

Contents

Methods

Algae

Seawater algae Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds. They are photosynthetic, like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct organs found in land plants such as kelp Kelp are large seaweeds belonging to the brown algae (class Phaeophyceae) and are classified as the order Laminariales. There are about 300 different genera. Some species can be very long and form kelp forests can be farmed in at least two ways. It can be grown around a rope that is anchored to the sea floor so that they do not drift away. Off the coast of California California's geography ranges from the Pacific coast to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the east, to Mojave desert areas in the southeast and the Redwood–Douglas fir forests of the northwest. The center of the state is dominated by the Central Valley, one of the most productive agricultural areas in the world. California is the most, boats with mowers harvest the top few feet of natural kelp beds. Kelp provides alginin, an edible material used in ice cream Ice cream or ice-cream is a frozen dessert usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream, and often combined with fruits or other ingredients and flavours. Most varieties contain sugar, although some are made with other sweeteners. In some cases, artificial flavourings and colourings are used in addition to the natural ingredients. This and cosmetics Cosmetics are substances used to enhance the appearance or odor of the human body. Cosmetics include skin-care creams, lotions, powders, perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail and toe nail polish, eye and facial makeup, permanent waves, colored contact lenses, hair colors, hair sprays and gels, deodorants, baby products, bath oils, bubble baths, bath. The industry also supplies the dietary supplement A dietary supplement, also known as food supplement or nutritional supplement, is a preparation intended to supplement the diet and provide nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids, that may be missing or may not be consumed in sufficient quantity in a person's diet. Some countries define dietary supplements as industry.

Open ocean

Raising marine organisms under controlled conditions in exposed, high-energy ocean environments beyond significant coastal influence,is a relatively new approach to mariculture. Open ocean aquaculture (OOA) Uses cages, nets, or long-line arrays that are moored, towed or float freely. Research and commercial open ocean aquaculture facilities are in operation or under development in Australia, Chile, China, France, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, and Norway. As of 2004, two commercial open ocean facilities were operating in U.S. waters, raising Threadfin near Hawaii The state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian Island chain, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles . At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight "main islands" are (from the northwest to southeast) Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and Hawaiʻi. The last is by and cobia Cobia —also known as black kingfish, black salmon, ling, lemonfish, crabeaters, aruan tasek, etc.—are perciform marine fish, the sole representative of their family, the Rachycentridae near Puerto Rico Puerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: "Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" — literally Associated Free State of Puerto Rico), is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean Sea, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands. An operation targeting bigeye tuna The bigeye tuna, Thunnus obesus, is an important food fish and highly sought after recreational game fish. It is a true tuna of the genus Thunnus, belonging to the wider mackerel family Scombridae recently received final approval. All U.S. commercial facilities are currently sited in waters under state or territorial jurisdiction.[1][2]

Sea ranching

The Japanese apply a principle based on behavioral conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species. The fishermen raise hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding. When the fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen sound the horn and then net those fish that respond.[citation needed]

Seawater ponds

In seawater Seawater is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5%. This means that every kilogram, or every litre, of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts (mostly, but not entirely, the ions of sodium chloride: Na+, Cl−). The average density of seawater at the ocean surface is 1.025 pond mariculture, fish is raised in ponds which receive water from the sea. This has the benefit that the nutrition Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet (e.g. microorganisms A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is microscopic (too small to be seen by the naked human eye). The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his own design) present in the seawater can be used. This is a great advantage over traditional fish farms (e.g. sweet water farms) for which the farmers buy feed (which is expensive). Other advantages are that water purification plants may be planted in the ponds to eliminate the buildup of nitrogen Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere, from fecal and other contamination. Also, the ponds can be left unprotected from natural predators, providing another kind of filtering.[3]

Environmental Effects

Because mariculture increases the density, limits the range and possibly modifies the genome In modern molecular biology, the genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information. It is encoded either in DNA or, for many types of virus, in RNA of its target animals, while introducing new substances and species into surrounding waters, it has the potential to disrupt the environment. Possible effects include lifeless sea bottoms, spread of disease and parasites, mortality increases and behavior changes in wild animals, local extinctions and species invasions. The adjacent diagram connects these causes and effects.

In addition, nitrogen Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere and phosphorus Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly found in inorganic phosphate rocks. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms – white phosphorus and red phosphorus. Although the term "phosphorescence", meaning glow after compounds from food and waste may lead to blooms of phytoplankton Phytoplankton are the autotrophic component of the plankton community. The name comes from the Greek words φυτόν , meaning "plant", and πλαγκτός (planktos), meaning "wanderer" or "drifter". Most phytoplankton are too small to be individually seen with the unaided eye. However, when present in high enough, whose subsequent degradation can drastically reduce oxygen Oxygen (pronounced /ˈɒksɨdʒɨn/, OK-si-jin, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (acid, literally "sharp", from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter), is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table, and is a highly levels. If the algae Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds. They are photosynthetic, like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct organs found in land plants are toxic, fish A fish is any aquatic vertebrate animal that is covered with scales, and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are "cold-blooded", or ectothermic, allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic are killed and shellfish Shellfish is a culinary and fisheries term for exoskeleton-bearing aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Although most kinds of shellfish are harvested from saltwater environments, some kinds are found only in freshwater. In addition a few species of land crabs are eaten, for contaminated.[4][5][6]

Sustainability

Mariculture development must be sustained by basic and applied research and development in major fields such as nutrition Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet, genetics Genetics , a broad discipline of biology, is the science of heredity, genes, DNA, mutation, etc., and their functions and aspects in living organisms. The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of, system management, product handling, and socioeconomics Socioeconomics or socio-economics or social economics is an umbrella term with different usages. 'Social economics' may refer broadly to the "use of economics in the study of society." More narrowly, contemporary practice considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through social capital and social "markets" and. One approach is closed systems that have no direct interaction with the local environment [7]. However, investment and operational cost are currently significantly higher than open cages, limiting them to their current role as hatcheries.[4]

Potential Benefits

Sustainable mariculture promises economic and environmental benefits. Economies of scale imply that ranching can produce fish at lower cost than industrial fishing, leading to better human diets and the gradual elimination of unsustainable fisheries. Maricultured fish are also perceived to be of higher quality than fish raised in ponds or tanks, and offer more diverse choice of species. Consistent supply and quality control has enabled integration in food market channels.[4][5]

Species farmed

Fish
Shellfish/Crustaceans

[1][8]

Scientific literature

Scientific literature on mariculture can be found in the following journals:

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Borgatti, Rachel; Buck, Eugene H. (December 13, 2004). "Open Ocean Aquaculture". Congressional Research Service. http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/04dec/RL32694.pdf. Retrieved April 10, 2010.
  2. ^ McAvoy, Audrey (October 24, 2009). "Hawaii regulators approve first US tuna farm‎". The Associated Press. http://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory?id=8905220. Retrieved April 9, 2010.
  3. ^ Seawater pond mariculture techniques
  4. ^ a b c Katavic, Ivan. (1999). Mariculture in the New Millennium. ACS, 223-229.
  5. ^ a b Brugere, Cecile, Muir, James F., & Young, James A. (1999). Green grow the fishes-Oh? Environmental attributes in marketing aquaculture products. Aquculture Economics & Management 3(1), 7-17.
  6. ^ UNEP, World Fisheries Trust. (2002). THE EFFECTS OF MARICULTURE ON BIODIVERSITY"
  7. ^ Schwermer, C.U., T.G. Ferdelman, P. Stief, A. Gieseke, N. Rezakhani, J. van Rijn, D. de Beer, and A. Schramm. 2010. Effect of nitrate on sulfur transformations in sulfidogenic sludge of a marine aquaculture biofilter. FEMS Microbial Ecology 72(3):476-480. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123325988/abstract
  8. ^ J. G. Ferreira, A.J.S. Hawkins, S.B. Bricker (2007) Management of productivity, environmental effects and profitability of shellfish aquaculture – The Farm Aquaculture Resource Management (FARM) model. Aquaculture, 264, 160-174.

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